Electronic Library of Scientific Literature Electronic Library of Scientific Literature
Vol. IX / No 2 / 2000
ŠTÚDIE, ANALÝZY - STUDIES, ANALYSIS
Ireland’s Foreign Aid in 1998
Írska pomoc zahraničiu v roku 1998
Transition of Czech Repubilc from a Recipient of Development Aid to Donor Country, Using UNDP Nationally Executed Project as a Vehicle to Conform to OECD/DAC Commitments
Prechod Českej republiky z krajiny prijímajúcej rozvojovú pomoc na donorskú krajinu v rámci národného projektu UNDP ako nástroja na naplnenie dohôd OECD/DAC
59 Urban Rusnák
Rozvojová pomoc členských krajín Organizácie pre hospodársku spoluprácu a rozvoj
The Development Assistance of OECD Member States
Rozvojová pomoc ako nevyhnutná súčasť procesu globalizácie
Development Assistance as Necessary Attribute of Globalization Process
ÚVAHY, ROZPRAVY, ROZHOVORY - REFLECTIONS, TRANSACTIONS, INTERVIEWS
98 Birgit Keerd
Estonian Development Cooperation
Estónska rozvojová pomoc104 Ingrid Brocková
Slovensko a zahraničná (ne)pomoc
Slovakia and International (un)aid109 František Ružička
Systém poskytovania rozvojovej a humanitárnej pomoci v Českej republike
System of Providing Development and Humanitarian Assistance in Czech Republic
DOKUMENTY, PRAMENE - DOCUMENTS, SOURCES
114 Charta aktívnej rozvojovej pomoci a spolupráce Slovenskej republiky
Charter of the Official Development Assistance and Cooperation of the Slovak Republic
120 Peter Juza
- Kamaludin Seražudinovič Gadžiev: Úvod do geopolitiky
- Igor Grigorijevič Jakovenko: Ruský štát: národné záujmy, hranice, perspektívy
- Stretnutie predsedov výborov parlamentov krajín V4
128 Joint Declaration of the Chairmen of the Foreign Affairs, European Integration and Defence Committees of the Visegrad Four Countries Adopted at their 5th Meeting Bratislava 26.-28. April 2000
Autorka sa vo svojom príspevku venuje problematike pomoci Írska rozvojovým krajinám tzv. tretieho sveta. Vo svojom výklade zohľadňuje na jednej strane globálnu pomoc rozvinutých krajín (napr. G7), na druhej strane popisuje aj genézu írskej pomoci od sedemdesiatych rokov po súčasnosť. Prehľadné tabuľky umožňujú čitateľovi získať konkrétne číselné údaje v jednotlivých vytypovaných oblastiach, na ktoré sa zamerala írska pomoc, a v jednotlivých rokoch.
V roku 1974, rok po tom, ako sa Írsko stalo členom Európskeho hospodárskeho spoločenstva (EHS) (dnešnej Európskej únie), začalo realizovať svoj program dvojstrannej pomoci hospodársky najmenej rozvinutým krajinám.
Celkové výdavky na rozvojovú pomoc činili vtedy 1,5 milióna írskych libier šterlingov. O dvadsať päť rokov neskôr to bolo okolo 180 miliónov, čo znamená vyše stonásobný nárast pôvodnej sumy. Vo vyjadrení v pomere k hrubému domácemu produktu (HDP) to predstavovalo 0,05 % v roku 1974 a 0,34 % v roku 1999. Je pravda, že to zďaleka nespĺňa cieľ OSN – dosiahnuť hodnotu 0,7 % HDP a Írsko ani dnes nedosahuje priemer rozsahu pomoci členských štátov EÚ, ktorý činí 0,4 % HDP. Írsko ale aj tak patrí do prvej polovice v zozname darcov v roku 1998.
V priebehu dvadsiatich piatich rokov sa svetová ekonomika výrazne zmenila a celkový kontext, v rámci ktorého prebieha program pomoci, sa výrazne líši od situácie z roka 1974, keď program začínal.
Rozsah írskej pomoci v nominálnom i percentuálnom vyjadrení neustále vzrastal. Dosť ťažko možno porovnávať rozpočet oficiálnej rozvojovej pomoci (ODA) Írska s ďalšími dvadsiatimi členmi Výboru rozvojovej pomoci (DAC), Organizácie pre hospodársku spoluprácu a rozvoj (OECD), pretože Írsko je rozlohou a počtom obyvateľstva malou krajinou. V roku 1998 bolo Írsko v nominálnom vyjadrení USD na devätnástom mieste z dvadsaťjeden členských štátov DAC (pred Novým Zélandom a Luxemburskom), ale v percentuálnom vyjadrení v pomere k DPH zaujímalo desiate miesto.
Tabuľka č. 1 anglického textu poskytuje prehľad celkovej írskej pomoci a jej členenie na dvojstranné a mnohostranné toky za rok 1998 a za vybrané roky posledného desaťročia. Tabuľka č. 4 poskytuje podobné informácie za vybrané roky od obdobia, keď sa začal program dvojstrannej pomoci v roku 1974. Obe tabuľky informujú aj o rozpočte na rok 1999. Cieľom súčasnej vlády je dosiahnuť úroveň pomoci v hodnote 0,45 % HDP.
Tabuľka č. 2 anglického textu ukazuje prehľad programu dvojstrannej pomoci v rokoch 1996 až 1999 s ohľadom na tzv. prioritné krajiny, ktorými sú Lesotho, Tanzánia, Zambia, Uganda, Etiópia a Mozambik vrátane ďalších krajín. Tabuľka dokumentuje aj štruktúru poskytovanej pomoci (napr. vzdelávanie a výcvik, zdravotníctvo, humanitárna pomoc, demokratizácia a oblasť ľudských práv, pomoc utečencom).
Tabuľka č. 3 informuje o programe mnohostrannej pomoci v tom istom období. Finančné zdroje prostredníctvom Európskej únie, Svetovej banky a jednotlivých osobitných súčastí (agentúr) Organizácie Spojených národov, ako sú napr. UNDP (Program OSN pre rozvoj), UNHCR (Úrad vysokého komisára OSN pre utečencov), UNHCHR (Úrad vysokého komisára OSN pre ľudské práva), UNICEF (Detský fond OSN), WHO (Svetová zdravotnícka organizácia), UNDHA (Sekcia OSN pre humanitárne záležitosti), UNITAR (Inštitút OSN pre výcvik a výskum) FAO (Organizácia OSN pre výživu a poľnohospodárstvo), IFAD (Medzinárodný fond pre poľnohospodársky rozvoj), WFP (Svetový program pre výživu) atď.
Autorka vo svojom príspevku konštatuje, že koniec studenej vojny má za následok aj skutočnosť, že tzv. tretí svet už nie je oblasťou rivality superveľmocí, čo má však, paradoxne, aj negatívne dôsledky. Po rozpade Sovietskeho zväzu sa znížil objem pomoci zo 60,8 miliárd USD v roku 1992 na 47,6 miliárd v roku 1997. Deväťdesiate roky však majú aj pozitívnu stránku. Posilňuje sa partnerský vzťah medzi darcami a vládami, ktorým je určená pomoc, silnejší dôraz sa kladie na podporu ľudských práv, demokracie, na rovnoprávnosť pohlaví, environmentálnu a sociálno-hospodársku udržateľnosť vývoja.
Na konci deväťdesiatych rokov môže Írsko konštatovať, že rozsah jeho aktivít zameraných na pomoc rozvojovým krajinám sa v súlade s medzinárodným trendom vývoja rozširuje, stáva sa komplexnejší, čím reaguje na nové globálne súvislosti poskytovanej pomoci.
Írske ministerstvo zahraničných vecí formulovalo v dokumente pod názvom Írske vonkajšie záujmy (Pursuing Ireland’s External Interests) z roku 1997 ciele politiky rozvojovej spolupráce nasledovne: “Prispievať k rozvoju potrieb chudobných krajín prostredníctvom partnerského vzťahu s vládami a obyvateľstvom týchto krajín a v súlade s ich prioritami; podporovať proces rozvoja sebestačnosti, dostatočnosti, odstraňovania biedy najmä v najmenej rozvinutých krajinách; podporovať koncepciu udržateľného rozvoja vo všetkých jej aspektoch vrátane materiálneho zabezpečenia, ľudských práv, základných slobôd, rovnosti pohlaví, ochrany životného prostredia, podpory občianskej spoločnosti, ako aj mechanizmu predchádzania konfliktom...” Tento strategický dokument podčiarkuje aj politiku spolupráce ako integrálnu súčasť írskej zahraničnej politiky, ktorá prispieva k medzinárodnému mieru, bezpečnosti a stabilnému globálnemu hospodárskemu systému. Zvyšuje sa miera začlenenia domáceho obyvateľstva do rozvojových programov, miera jeho aktívnej účasti na celom procese od etapy vymedzenia problému cez vypracovanie projektu, jeho uplatnenie až po fázu monitorovania a vyhodnotenia. Do programu sa výraznejšie zapájajú domáce štruktúry, orgány štátnej správy, domáci odborníci a pod.
Írske ministerstvo financií poskytlo na budúce tri roky záruky v prípade vyčlenenia finančných zdrojov pre bilaterálnu pomoc v štátnom rozpočte: na rok 1999 vyčlenilo 104 miliónov, na rok 2000 uvoľnilo 136 miliónov a na rok 2001 okolo 159 miliónov írskych libier šterlingov. Celkový objem rozvojovej pomoci sa pohybuje na úrovni 171 miliónov v roku 1999, 184 miliónov v roku 2000 a 207 miliónov v roku 2001.
Írsky program dvojstrannej pomoci sa od samého začiatku zameral na úzky počet tzv. prioritných krajín. Päť – Lesotho, Zambia, Tanzánia, Sudán a India – bolo vybraných v roku 1974. Čoskoro z tohto zoznamu vypadla India, a to z praktických dôvodov – išlo o príliš veľkú krajinu v pomere k obmedzeným možnostiam Írska. Sudán vypadol nedávno. V roku 1994 pristúpili do programu Etiópia a Uganda a v roku 1996 Mozambik, čiže v súčasnosti sa bilaterálna pomoc týka šiestich krajín. OSN a Svetová banka ich označujú za najmenej rozvinuté. Ak pomer celkovej bilaterálnej pomoci vo vzťahu k prioritným krajinám tvoril v roku 1974 17 %, v roku 1998 išlo už o 50 %. Ďalšími krajinami, kde plynie írska rozvojová pomoc, sú Albánsko, Bangladéš, Eritrea, Ghana, Kambodža, Malawi, Namíbia, Nigéria, Južná Afrika, Sudán, Vietnam a Zimbabwe.
Z hľadiska odvetví sa na začiatku sedemdesiatych rokov írska pomoc zameriavala na “rovnovážny vzrast vo všetkých odvetviach”, ale “najmä tam, kde Írsko malo osobitný záujem”. Program pomoci v tomto období by sa dal najlepšie vyjadriť ako súbor projektov. Väčšia časť pomoci sa rozdelila medzi technologickú pomoc, rozvoj vidieka, vzdelávanie a zdravotníctvo, pretože to boli oblasti, v ktorých mohlo vtedajšie Írsko poskytnúť odborné znalosti. Aj dnes sa pomoc zameriava predovšetkým na rozvoj vidieka, vzdelávanie a zdravotníctvo. Ide však o celkom odlišný program, s odlišným mechanizmom. Predovšetkým sledujeme výrazný posun v rámci odvetví. Objem pomoci poskytovaný nemocniciam a univerzitám sa výrazne znížil a dôraz sa kladie najmä na starostlivosť o zdravie. V oblasti vzdelávania a výchovy sa uprednostňujú základné a neformálne školy, vzdelávanie učiteľov a gramotnosť dospelého obyvateľstva. V oblasti rozvoja vidieka sa pozornosť venuje bezpečnosti potravín, vidieckym komunikáciám, čistote vôd, sanitárnemu servisu a pod. Pomoc zasahuje aj do oblasti ľudských práv a demokracie. Na programe sa aktívne zúčastňuje domáca štátna správa a množstvo miestnych výborov, ktoré sa venujú problematike rozvoja. Väčšie kvantum pomoci prioritným krajinám sa realizuje vo forme integrovaných programov na subnárodnej, oblastnej úrovni, pričom jednotlivé oblasti sa vyberajú po konzultácii s miestnou vládou.
Významnou a stálou charakteristikou programu pomoci je dôraz na spoluprácu s nevládnymi organizáciami, ktoré sa podieľajú na rozvoji spoločnosti. Mnohé granty spolufinancujú írske nevládne organizácie. V tejto oblasti vzrástla pomoc z pôvodných necelých 0,5 miliónov írskych libier šterlingov v sedemdesiatych rokoch na 6,4 milióna v roku 1998. Celkove, s prispením írskych nevládnych organizácií, ide o sumu približne 20,7 miliónov libier.
V roku 1984 autorka publikovala stať o programe bilaterálnej pomoci, v ktorom zhodnotila desaťročné obdobie a vytýčila zámery na osemdesiate roky. Cieľom bolo publikovať Bielu knihu rozvojovej spolupráce, vstúpiť do DAC, zdokonaliť rozpočtový mechanizmus vrátane možnosti plánovať na viac rokov dopredu, skvalitniť administratívne štruktúry a ustanoviť štátnu agentúru pre program pomoci. Mal sa tiež posúdiť zoznam prioritných krajín. A výsledky, ktoré Írsko v tomto smere dosiahlo? Biela kniha o zahraničnej politike, publikovaná v roku 1996, obsahovala kapitolu o spolupráci v oblasti rozvoja, v roku 1993 bol publikovaný dokument Strategický plán, v rokoch 1997 a 1998 tzv. vyhlásenia o stratégii. V roku 1986 sa Írsko stalo členom DAC. Prehodnotilo zoznam prioritných krajín a v súčasnosti opätovne posudzuje možnosti rozšíriť ho. Prebiehajú diskusie o začlenení súkromného sektora do programu pomoci, ktorý sa doteraz na aktivitách podieľal len okrajovo. Ako veľmi dôležité sa ukazuje začleniť do programu pomoci mladých ľudí, ktorí sú síce dobre odborne pripravení, ale chýbajú im praktické skúsenosti v tejto oblasti.
V závere svojho príspevku autorka potvrdzuje cieľ írskeho programu pomoci, ktorým je zmiernenie biedy v krajinách tretieho sveta. Tento koncept zmiernenia chudoby však prešiel výraznou zmenou, a to v smere zvýšenia aktívnej spoluúčasti krajiny na zlepšovaní vlastného postavenia. V tomto zmysle ide o projekt budovania partnerského vzťahu, a nie pasívneho prijímania pomoci. Cieľom spoločného úsilia je znížiť závislosť chudobných krajín, zabezpečiť tzv. udržateľnosť vývoja, čo je multidimenziálny proces týkajúci sa oblasti ekonomickej, sociálnej, environmentálnej, inštitucionálnej, organizačnej atď. Aj keď sa doteraz v najchudobnejších krajinách dosiahli len skromné výsledky, je evidentné, že podiel Írska na pomoci (v porovnaní so začiatkami v sedemdesiatych rokoch) výrazne vzrástol. Dnes patrí Írsku dôstojné postavenie v rodine darcov, aj keď v absolútnom finančnom vyjadrení zostáva naďalej malým prispievateľom. Pokiaľ ide o podstatu a spôsob prístupu, môže smelo konkurovať ostatným malým krajinám Európskej únie.
Írsky program pomoci tvorí v súčasnosti významnú a neoddeliteľnú súčasť írskej zahraničnej politiky. Írske obyvateľstvo má k aktivitám rozvojovej pomoci pozitívny postoj a je hrdé na svoj podiel v tejto oblasti.
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Rozvojová pomoc je dôležitá časť komplexných politických a ekonomických vzťahov medzi Severom a Juhom, inými slovami medzi rozvinutými a rozvojovými krajinami. Rozvojová pomoc je považovaná za jeden zo spôsobov, ako propagovať globálne udržateľný rozvoj, bojovať proti chudobe a zaistiť všeobecnú bezpečnosť. Súčasne sa prostredníctvom programov rozvojovej pomoci napĺňajú hlavné záväzky stanovené simultánne Spojenými národmi, Európskou úniou a členskými krajinami OECD.
Česká republika, ako krajina v procese transformácie na trhovú ekonomiku, je typickým “vznikajúcim” donorom na poli rozvojovej pomoci. Rozvojová pomoc poskytovaná bývalou Československou republikou pred rokom 1989 bola založená na iných princípoch a nebola ani v súlade s praxou ostatných vyspelých darcov postupujúcich podľa pravidiel a štandardov OECD/DAC.
Česká vláda sa na základe strategických cieľov vo svojom programovom vyhlásení z augusta 1998 zaviazala podporovať rozvojovú spoluprácu. V budúcnosti sa Česká republika bude snažiť ako člen OECD a pozorovateľ DAC (Development Assistance Committee – Výbor pre rozvojovú pomoc) zohrávať stále dôležitejšiu úlohu v medzinárodnej spolupráci a poskytovaní pomoci rozvojovým krajinám.
V súvislosti s týmto faktom česká vláda súhlasila s Rozvojovým programom Spojených národov (UNDP) na realizáciu projektu Posiľňovanie národných kapacít medzinárodnej rozvojovej spolupráce (číslo kódu CEH/ 99/ 001), aby podporila vyššie uvedený záväzok. Hlavným cieľom projektu je preto pomoc Českej republike pri transformácii z prijímateľskej na donorskú krajinu na globálnej úrovni, a špecifickým záujmom projektu je vytvoriť rámec národnej stratégie pre rozvojovú spoluprácu a mechanizmus manažmentu poskytovania pomoci rozvojovým krajinám, ako aj posilnenie ľudských a inštitucionálnych kapacít pre tento účel.
Iným významným cieľom je propagácia myšlienky rozvojovej spolupráce v Českej republike na podporu povedomia verejnosti a celkového úspechu projektu.
Koncept technickej spolupráce medzi rozvojovými krajinami je momentálne dôležitým a špecifickým aspektom rozvojových aktivít UNDP. Jeho pozitívom je výmena skúseností a technológií, ktoré sú situované zodpovedajúco zdrojom a sociokultúrnym podmienkam rozvojových krajín.
Počas realizácie projektu boli premenené vyššie uvedené bezprostredné ciele na 16 výstupov a zodpovedajúce aktivity vykonávané podľa plánu práce a časového rozvrhu. Prvých desať mesiacov implementácie kulminovalo v polovici apríla 2000 počas tripartitného stretnutia troch angažovaných partnerov, Ústavu mezinárodních vztahů Praha, MZV ČR a UNDP pri príležitosti vyhodnotenia postupu implementácie.
Uvedený článok popisuje na ilustratívnych príkladoch skúsenosti s prvou etapou implementácie. Na ich základe si zainteresovaný čitateľ môže urobiť obraz o dosiahnutých výsledkoch projektu a použiť tieto skúsenosti na formulovanie vlastnej koncepcie rozvojovej pomoci s prihliadnutím na konkrétne podmienky a špecifiká svojej krajiny.
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About OECD
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD was founded in 1961 replacing the Organisation of European Economic Co-operation, which had been established in 1948 in conjunction with the Marshall Plan. In that time many of OECD member states just had been recovered from war damages trough successful implementation of the Marshall Plan‘s development strategy and an idea of necessity of aid for developing countries was a natural one in light of starting mass de-colonization process. The development assistance became a firm part of the policies of developed countries and from the very beginning had been on the agenda of OECD itself. OECD created different bodies for development assistance – such as Development Assistance Committee (DAC), Development Co-operation Directorate (DCD), Development Center and Club du Sahel. Today, OECD brings together 29 Member countries in a forum in which to discuss, develop and perfect economic and social policy. Most advanced donors of the OECD countries are members to the DAC. After last changes in December 1999 (entry of Greece) DAC consists following members: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Commission of the European Communities.
Development Aid – Past and Present
Traditionally the development aid is one of the tools of the most developed states to help and promote economic and social development of the least developed countries and territories. The development aid reached the peak in middle 1980s, when the total Official Development Assistance (ODA) in global terms was according the DAC estimation above USD 66 billion per year 1 (DAC members USD 54 bill., Arab countries USD 6 bill., members of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance USD 6 bill.). From 1992 to 1997 due to different reason aid from DAC member states declined by 21% in real term and aid from other donors felled to the minimum. The fall of ODA from DAC member countries was halted in 1998, when ODA rose by USD 3,6 billion in real term. However a cumulative cut USD 88,7 billion was recorded since 1992, compared to the expected ODA in condition if the level of ODA in long term average at 0,33 % of GNP had been kept.
In its report in 1969 the Pearson Commission wrote that with dynamic growth supported by continuous development assistance, development countries would no longer need aid financing by the year 2000. This optimistic forecast was based on rising amount of development aid at the time and anticipated fulfillment of the UN target 0.7 % of the GNP devoted for the development aid by the donor countries. Those expectations were not confirmed in course of the history and thirty years DAC average became 0.33 % of GNP, which is less then half of the original, still valid, target. Except four frontrunners.
Denmark (0.99%), Norway (0.91 %), the Netherlands (0.80 %) and Sweden (0,72%) no other DAC country met the UN criteria. In absolute figures bigger economies provide much significant aid, in 1998 four biggest donors provided three fifth of total ODA (USD 51.888 bill): Japan USD 10.640 bill (0.28 %), USA USD 8.768 bill (0.10 %), France USD 5.742 bill (0.40 %) and Germany USD 5.581 bill (0.26 %). Although growing number of developing countries made a successful transition to autonomously financed development the need for aid not diminishes by end of the Century. According the UNDP‘s 1999 Human Development Report, measured by Human Poverty Index, more then a quarter of the 4.5 billion people in developing countries do not have access to knowledge, minimum private and public services and will not survive beyond 40 years of age. To meet those challenges in the 21st Century international donor community should strengthen its efforts in rising adequate financing support and effectiveness of development assistance. The 1996 UN Report Our Global Neighborhood also underlines remaining importance of the development aid for the Global Society.
Actual Trends – Partnership and Coordination
Facing new conditions in last decade, international donor community made a shift in thinking towards strengthening ideas of partnership cooperation in the field of development assistance. In last five years different forums and international organisations adopted a number of policy papers and documents. DAC‘s 1996 policy document Shaping the 21st Century: The Contribution of Development Cooperation besides evaluation of made progress and some forecasts for coming 15 years adjust some quantitative goals. In economic well being to achieve a reduction by one half in the proportion of people living in extreme poverty by 2015. In social development those goals are: universal primary education in all countries by 2015, eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005, a reduction by two-thirds in the mortality rates for infants and children under age 5 and a reduction by three-fourths in maternal mortality – all by 2015 and an access to reproductive health services for all individuals no later then 2015. In field of environmental sustainability and regeneration to implement national strategies for sustainable development in all countries by 2005 so to ensure that current trends in the loss of environmental resources are effectively reversed both in global and national levels by 2015. Those goals could not be achieved by aid alone, but forthcoming efforts needs to joint contribution of people and governments of development countries and financial and technical support from the donor community. Coherence between aid policies and other policies, which impact on developing countries, is an important part of this new approach as well as support of locally owned development strategies and mutual commitments between partners supported by adequate resources. The latest political document produced in 2000 by DAC under the title On Common Ground distilled fundamental partnership principles from various policy documents issued over past five years. The document stressed a general consensus on the subject of sustainable development and the ways, how to achieve it. The international community recognized the need for a long-term integrated vision on development, based and supporting the country‘s ownership of its development process. The increasing role of partnership with central and local governments, civil society and the private sector in developing countries along the stronger coordination among multilateral and bilateral aid agencies, NGO‘s and private sector in donor countries is essential for achieving a common goal of sustainable development. In order to effectively relate financial inputs to the achieved results it is acknowledged those quantitative goals for both inputs and results must be set. Development cooperation and the implementation procedures should be accountable, transparent, effective and visible. Partners should harmonize tools and practices and use the approach that does not undermine the values of partnership and ownership.
Slovak Membership in OECD and Development Assistance
Slovakia is the only country negotiating the OECD Membership today and has a perspective to become member by 2000-2001. Even if the entry to the OECD does not mean automatically rise financial resources designated to the ODA in Slovakia it is evident, that active official development assistance is very in the spirit of OECD. The actual challenge in the field of development assistance and cooperation for Slovakia is to reorganize and modernize its system of development aid according the latest trends, to be ready when economic growth allow to increase national assignments for ODA.
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Process of globalization brings together not only higher interconnectedness of previously separated socio-economic systems, but also problems resulting from inequality between poor and rich people. One striking element of uneven development is marginalization, which means that some countries can stay away the interest of global economic actors. While until recently globalization, with its unequal impact on poor and rich countries, had been considered as the main problem, today marginalization becomes more urgent problem. So it is necessary for global society to focus more on critical problems affecting developing countries. With providing foreign development assistance and the UN target to reduce poverty and scope of diseases, both transitional and DAC countries start to think about reforms in their assistance systems so as these better reflect newly accepted principles of sustainability of positive changes, efficiency and higher participation and responsibility of countries receiving assistance. Persisting “fatigue of assistance” could have changed in the future into conflicts affecting not only “South” but the whole world.
Poverty alleviation, equality and economic development are the main issues related now to the least developed countries. These countries are lacking elementary living standards of the developed world like basic health care, basic education etc. Urgent need in the countries is to secure sustainable development. Their problems become more complex and complicated as advanced countries develop various institutions and regulations enabling conditional approach to public sources. Shift from sources to their control, from material problems to understanding of technical aspects of development and similar changes create the need to have other form of participation of developing countries in the process of development assistance.
Theoretical aspects of development assistance
Active development assistance (ADA) is based on the need to solve persisting and deepening conflict between transnational allocation of wealth and national problems with the situation of poor people and weak national economies. This process is seen especially in countries with the lowest shares of GDP per capita, also often the ones with the highest indebtedness. Even those developing countries, which wish to improve their position through reform changes, are facing many problems. To structural poverty, generated by existing socio-economic conditions, is added adaptation poverty, which is linked to exerting of necessary economic and social changes.
Policy of developing assistance should seek optimal mechanisms for solving both acute problems of poverty alleviation and income redistribution. Some experts stress that the priority should be poverty alleviation because income redistribution is more influenced by the changes in shares of higher and middle classes than by income development of poorer people. Income redistribution toward building wider middle class caused by efficient changes in social and economic system on the other hand relates with enforcing democratic development in that countries. This principle can be interpreted differently due to different cultural, historical and social characteristics. Assistance strategies today are based on the need for immediate solution of long-term stabilization and growth. They combine the requirement of long-term sustainability via building and enforcing capacities with relatively quick solution of basic and urgent problems. OECD documents and materials of other organizations analyze not only general issues but also specific technical details. Measurement of assistance effects is linked to set of indicators which structure differs according to the countries using them.
New priorities in building of the development assistance system
Operational flexibility is an important principle in the national systems of providing foreign assistance. Besides the flexibility important role is played also by transparency of the system, which increases the probability of efficient use of funds. Flexibility as well as long-term priorities are good characteristics of the ADA mechanism. International organizations also devote great attention to the problems of developing countries. There were several UN conferences like that in Rio de Janeiro (1992), Cairo (1994) or Rome (1996). A joint workshop of DAC a World Bank on infrastructure needs has helped to indicate some areas where donors can contribute for development of less developed countries. One qualitative change is enforcing the principle of sustainability and mutual responsibility in the projects. Changes in the development assistance system should not represent a long-term process, but changes with clearly defined time limits. Developing local capital markets and new tools for inter-mediating of sources and experience is necessary condition for gradual elimination of the marginalization.
Institutionalization of development assistance system
ADA systems, as have developed in DAC member countries, give a chance to see variety of actors participating in assistance and relations between them shaped by institutional framework. Individual systems in various ways set solutions of interest conflicts via elements guaranteeing not only formal transparency of the system, but also its real control and efficiency. The state supports activities of development organizations with activities of mission organizations in the framework of development assistance. In different countries various organizational settings and units are used for fulfilling the tasks related to ADA. Particular organizational structure, size and the way how control and coordination is done, do not stem only from the volume of sources but also from broader social, cultural and historical conditions. Thus, also in the comparison of structures, we can see high variety of particular settings. This paper presents basic OECD typology (five basic models) that reflects possible ways of coordination and incorporation of individual units participating on ADA. Shown are several models used in various countries from Australia to the United States. Building of institutional framework and organizational structure for ADA is a long-term, permanently evolving, process. Still more are supported mechanisms that reduce asymmetry of decision-making between governments and NGOs. It means higher participation of these NGOs in the process of providing assistance. Higher number of actors and effort to maintain transparency and equal access of NGOs to the funds provided by the state require permanent improvement of the system of providing sources and control of their use.
Process phasing and suitable structuring of ADA system are among primary conditions of success in maintaining assistance. Deepening inequality can be eliminated not only by gradual assistance, but also by a global system of institutions, orienting activities of international society toward main problems related with poverty like malnutrition, high indebtedness, absence of education etc. Many years have passed since the developed countries have built institutional basis for coordination of their activities using higher level of cooperation and involvement of receiving countries. This development was a logical consequence of failures of previous non-cooperative approaches, characterized by low efficiency and capacity for sustainability of the development they initiated. Despite the fact the DAC countries have enough experience, which have already been used, it is necessary for new countries to select such a model of organizational and institutional setting, which will be adequate to their needs and requirements not only from the efficiency point of view but also with respect to the possibility of political acceptance and public support in home country. Especially the last two aspects are necessary to consider in our conditions, when the home economic situation is used for political purposes and when living standards of population can raise questions about general priorities.
The changing role for governments is mentioned also in the publication of OECD (1999a), which is devoted to assistance in the area of infrastructure support. It is mentioned there that also with including the private sector in the programs the role of the governments will remain very important but their role will change. Mechanism ADA is not represented only by the created system of providing assistance but also the whole institutional framework, which explicitly states maneuvering area to actors acting in the development assistance projects. Whereas the ADA system is possible to build quickly, it is a question of functioning of the whole mechanism, which is more, complicated because of persisting old institutions, which sometime determine dynamics and orientation of changes and, by this, final reform effects.
Building of development assistance system in the Slovak Republic
With a move of post-socialist countries to market economies their interest is to have adequate position in the existing European institutional framework. Also the Slovak republic is in a position preparing to join international organizations. Creating own models in Slovakia, the Czech republic and Hungary now does reforming the ADA system. Arguments in favor of the reform are based on international experience showing that in the first phase of building the new system there are not control mechanisms and the system is not fully developed yet to avoid non-productive use of sources. On the other hand, the system should be designed to be able in the future allocate development funds also in form of bilateral assistance.
Optimization of regional/topical dimensions of development assistance will be the task for the next phases. Now it is important to make evaluation and assessment of the assistance using OECD standards. By this should be obtained an overview in what volume and structure is real development assistance provided. One budgetary item for development assistance, separated from humanitarian one, is a necessary step for making the existing system more transparent. In particular political setting and the economic situation transparency and flexibility must be combined with firm principles and adequate mechanisms of action and control. A consensus of the wide political specter and of the whole population is a good precondition for reaching the effects both at home and abroad.
It is necessary to ensure that local-level institutions function effectively and in the coordinate manner and bring in harmony and coherence into the relation between local authorities and other local development actors. Participation should become mobilizing factor empowering the interest in successful continuity of projects. Providing foreign development assistance has a long tradition in our country but it still has not some features of effectively institutionalized system. Separation of humanitarian and development assistance is one primary step in systemic change. The second step represents increasing interconnectedness of state assistance system with units interesting in/providing foreign development assistance from business and non-profit area. These units can participate on the system whether as executing units or as donors.
One important step is to distinguish and separate system of humanitarian and development assistance. Mapping existing volumes and structure of assistance, identification of weak points of the current system and reserves in coordination as well as other areas are precondition for further development assistance planning not only in volumes but also in structure. The first phase is not primarily tight to sue of additional budgetary sources. Besides, functioning of the structure should be covered from the sources for development assistance. It seems that after necessary effort in consolidating the system Slovakia will be able more successfully participate not only in technical cooperation, where it has its traditional experience, but also to capital assistance, where is present also the element of commercial activity.
Resent approval of the Development assistance charter confirms interest the government has in building efficient mechanisms for development assistance. For establishing of such mechanisms is necessary to find broader consensus and also prepare audit of existing activities as a basis for policy changes. In the next steps selection and adjustment of organizational structure of the system is expected, where as models to follow are existing structures of DAC OECD countries. A model reflecting specific needs of Slovak foreign assistance program is a desired outcome. Since present situation does not allow radical increase in the volume of the assistance, the primary goal of the project is not an increase of the volume, but rather audit of activities, an analysis of opportunities and limits of existing programs, institutions and mechanisms. Only building more efficient mechanism of development assistance and assessment of existing contributions by using OECD standards could lead to higher efficiency of the system.
In principle, it is possible to secure support of public, political parties, parliament and government for systemic reform of ADA only in the case that, for the next future, there will not be a higher real burden for the budget items for development assistance and when it will shown some ways in which participation of the businesses can lead to positive effects for them. Coordinated effort of developed countries in the area of development assistance can help to improve poor conditions in developing countries and thus can contribute to reduction of migration movements from developing countries. There is still foreign-policy impact of such activities, as well.
In developing of own system of ADA it should be taken into account also the fact that conditions have to be guaranteed: critical amount of political/societal support for selection of priorities; adequately flexible structure and specification/division of roles of individual parts; mechanism of resource allocations of the state/private subjects implementing projects; measurement standard for each system areas.
With respect to the foreign experience published in OECD documents we can see as important these issues: size of an agency; division of labor between “key activities”; characteristics of agency employee; cooperation with other subjects; organizational structure and the position of a development agency in the system; internal structure of an agency; scope and form of foreign affiliations etc. In this stage of the project there are no suggestions provided for incorporation of some special units, which could seem to be functional but not fully adequate with respect to capacity, financial sources and possibilities of external development. An example of such an activity-related unit can be the area of development education. In this area it is possible to expect in the future that such a form will be run on some of the universities or other types of schools. Future development will show to what extent and in which areas it will be necessary to support education of employees from an agency responsible for development assistance.
Besides some organizational and technical difficulties in building of institutional framework should not undervalue the role to solve conflicts of interests on individual state levels. Until now there has not been unified reporting on development assistance. The assistance has been provided through individual ministries, institutions and organizations. With building the new system occurs a question in which way it is possible to reach planned organizational and institutional changes so as to avoid opportunistic behavior at the mentioned organizational units. Such a change should be gradual, supported by the dialogue of all parties included in the process. On the other hand implementation should follow the aim required and communication should be subordinated to that goal. Fragmentation of approaches and interest clashes among key actors can become a harming element of intended changes.
OECD experience stresses some important areas, which should be monitored. Include here are the following three areas: (a) transparency, (b) new areas of assistance and (c) reaching efficiency. Some agencies solve the efficiency problem by organizational separation of capital and technical assistance. It is argued that the nature of the capital assistance is different from that of technical one. The latter form of assistance is therefore financed rather from grants than by loans. Another problems expected in forthcoming reform will be, e.g., size and structure of an agency and its missions abroad. There is a possibility to select a setting from existing models of higher or lower participation of experts for development assistance in countries receiving it. OECD documents mentions three basic models. First of them is characterized as representation by one or two representatives for development assistance (usually within diplomatic mission). Second model is based on creation of special mission with substantially higher representation. The last model represents regional mission with high degree of autonomy covering several receiving countries. Higher or lower orientation on representation in abroad brings both advantages (like on-site experience) and disadvantages (e. g. lesser access to special analyses).
Proposed organizational structure and communication with other agencies
For particular situation in Slovakia we have chosen a setting that considers specifics of existing organizational structure of the assistance and has ambitions to reach quality changes in this area by using efficient evaluation of the assistance, efficient use of resources and by complex mechanism of generating ADA priorities. The scheme expresses basic organizational setting and its creation was based on transparency, professional approach, expedience, efficiency and on effort to reduce high administrative costs and potential misuse of sources. A proposed newly created development agency should guarantee suitable coordination of knowledge necessary for managing of larger development projects. This knowledge will be developed continually and will bring additional effects in times when the volume of provided assistance will be higher.
The need to cooperate and coordinate development assistance with other countries and international organizations is evident. In the framework of UNDP ADA project has been created primary framework of contacts and cooperation between organizations responsible for creation and providing active development assistance, especially with the Czech republic and Hungary. A strategy to provide at the initial period the assistance on multilateral basis is supported by one substantial argument. It gives higher guarantee of good preparation, implementation and control of financed projects. On the other hand, it is a disadvantage since the country reduces or loses the possibility to participate in decision-making on use of donations. Following UN’s Global agenda, supported by 185 nations, it is necessary to build such an ADA system, which will be based on knowledge confirming that various poverty-linked problems are interconnected and affect development. Contributing to the solution in the least developed countries is not only a question of responsibility and humanity, but also necessary precondition for the possibility of global economy and society development.
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Estonian Development Cooperation
Estónska rozvojová pomoc
Slovensko a zahraničná (ne)pomoc
Slovakia and International (un)aid
Systém poskytovania rozvojovej a humanitárnej pomoci v Českej republike
System of Providing Development and Humanitarian Assistance in Czech Republic
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Charta aktívnej rozvojovej pomoci a spolupráce Slovenskej republiky
Charter of the Official Development Assistance and Cooperation of the Slovak Republic
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